Short Persons Support: Research : Research Papers

This page lists links to research papers about the socioeconomic implications of short stature. Research is listed in reverse chronological order. Where ever possible we link to the actual publication. In some cases there is a charge for the article.

Title: Stature and Status: Height, Ability, and Labor Market Outcomes

Authors: Anne Case, Christina Paxon

Organization:   National Bureau of Economic Research

Pub. Date: August 2006

Abstract: It has long been recognized that taller adults hold jobs of higher status and, on average, earn more than other workers. A large number of hypotheses have been put forward to explain the association between height and earnings. In developed countries, researchers have emphasized factors such as self esteem, social dominance, and discrimination. In this paper, we offer a simpler explanation: On average, taller people earn more because they are smarter. As early as age 3 — before schooling has had a chance to play a role — and throughout childhood, taller children perform significantly better on cognitive tests. The correlation between height in childhood and adulthood is approximately 0.7 for both men and women, so that tall children are much more likely to become tall adults. As adults, taller individuals are more likely to select into higher paying occupations that require more advanced verbal and numerical skills and greater intelligence, for which they earn handsome returns. Using four data sets from the US and the UK, we find that the height premium in adult earnings can be explained by childhood scores on cognitive tests. Furthermore, we show that taller adults select into occupations that have higher cognitive skill requirements and lower physical skill demands.

Title: Assessment Of Psychosocial Aspects Of Short Stature

Authors: David E. Sandberg, PhD, Melissa Colsman, MA

Organization:   Departments of Psychiatry & Pediatrics, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo

Pub. Date: June 2005

Abstract: This review summarizes what is known about the psychosocial aspects of Short Stature and the Quality of Life benefits of rhGH treatment. Stereotypes and assumptions about Short Stature are evaluated in light of empirical findings. As described elsewhere, 8 studies and reviews were identified on MEDLINE® and PsychINFO® and The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews® using the terms “short,” “stature,” “height,” or “growth hormone” combined with “psychological,” “psychosocial,” or “quality of life.”

Title: Mean Body Weight, Height, and Body Mass Index, United States 1960-2002.

Authors: Cynthia L. Ogden, et. al.

Organization:   National Center for Health Statistics

Pub. Date: October 27, 2004

Abstract: This report presents trends in national estimates of mean weight, height, and body mass index (BMI) from the National Examination and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys between 1960 and 2002. The tables included in this report present data for adults by sex, race/ethnicity, and age group and for children by sex and year of age. Mean weight and BMI have increased for both sexes, all races/ethnic groups, and all ages. Among adults, mean weight increased more than 24 pounds. Although not as dramatically, mean height has also increased for most ages and for both males and females.

Title: Is short height really a risk factor for coronary heart disease and stroke mortality? A review

Authors: Thomas T. Samaras, Harold Brick, Lowell H. Storms

Organization:   Reventropy Associates

Pub. Date: April 2004

Abstract: A number of studies have reported an inverse relationship between height and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Most of these studies have involved a relatively small number of deceased people and may have been confounded by socioeconomic and other factors. In contrast, many studies have found short populations in traditional and western societies have very low CVD compared to taller Western populations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of short height on coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke incidence or mortality based on a variety of inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic groups involving much larger deceased populations compared to previous studies. The results of this study indicate that shorter people have substantially lower rates of CHD mortality and moderately lower levels of stroke mortality. For example, shorter southern Europeans had about half the CHD mortality rate of northern Europeans. In addition, shorter ethnic groups vs taller groups in California had substantially lower mortality rates. Native American, Japanese, Indian, and Pakistani studies also showed shorter people had lower CHD and stroke incidence or mortality compared to taller people within each group. The rate of increase in CHD mortality with increasing height was similar for shorter females vs taller males and for shorter males vs taller males.

Title: Women's height, reproductive success and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in modern humans

Authors: Daniel Nettle

Organization:   Open University of Britain

Pub. Date: August 2002

Abstract: Recent studies have shown that, in contemporary populations, tall men have greater reproductive success than shorter men. This appears to be due to their greater ability to attract mates. To our knowledge, no comparable results have yet been reported for women. This study used data from Britain's National Child Development Study to examine the life histories of a nationally representative group of women. Height was weakly but significantly related to reproductive success. The relationship was U-shaped, with deficits at the extremes of height. This pattern was largely due to poor health among extremely tall and extremely short women. However, the maximum reproductive success was found below the mean height for women. Thus, selection appears to be sexually disruptive in this population, favouring tall men and short women. Over evolutionary time, such a situation tends to maintain sexual dimorphism. Men do not use stature as a positive mate-choice criterion as women do. It is argued that there is good evolutionary reason for this, because men are orientated towards cues of fertility, and female height, being positively related to age of sexual maturity, is not such a cue.

Title: Height and the High Life - What Future for a Tall Story

Authors: Timothy Leunig & Hans-Joachim Voth

Organization:   Department of Economic History, London SChool of Economics & Universitat Pompeu Fabra

Pub. Date: 2004

Abstract: Ever better information on health and living standards will remove height from history's centre stage. This will be compounded by declining variations in adult height both within countries and across nations, as populations approach their genetic potential. We suggest two cases where stature will retain its role because other data are poor or unavailable. Children's heights can capture the effects of changing public policy and social conditions on families even in western countries. As with many current historical studies, the absence of other data may also make adult heights a useful tool in understanding the transition from communism to capitalism.

Title: The Effect of Adolescent Experience on Labor Market Outcomes: The Case of Height

Authors: Nicola Persico, Andrew Postlewaite and Dan Silverman

Organization:   University of Pennsylvania

Pub. Date: 8 October 2001

Abstract: Taller workers receive a wage premium, and the disparity in wages is similar in magnitude to the race and gender gaps. We exploit the variation in an individual's height over time to explore the way in which height affects wages. Specifically, we show that for white males, the effect of adult height is essentially eliminated when adolescent height is taken into account. We take this as evidence that adolescent height has important economic implications long after the time that it is observable to others, and we explore the channels through which the effects might be manifested.

Title: Beauty, Stature And The Labour Market: A British Cohort Study

Authors: Barry Harper

Organization:   London Guildhall University

Pub. Date: 8 June 1999

Abstract: The influence of physical appearance in the labour market is examined using longitudinal cohort data covering 11,407 individuals born in Britain in 1958. Results show that physical appearance has a substantial effect on earnings and employment patterns for both men and women. Irrespective of gender, those who are assessed as unattractive or short, experience a significant earnings penalty. Tall men receive a pay premium while obese women experience a pay penalty. The bulk of the pay differential for appearance arises from employer discrimination, although we find evidence for productivity differences among occupations. The impact of physical appearance is also evident in the marriage market. Among women, those who are tall of obese are less likely to be married; while among men, lower marriage rates are found fore those who are short or unattractive.

Title: Don't Want No Short, Short Man: The Study Of Height, Power, and Mate Selection

Authors: Melanie Rubenstein, Maureen Wissman, Chris Meyers

Organization:   Miami University

Pub. Date: 4 May 1998

Abstract: This study tested for a link between human height, power, and mate choice. The hypothesis was that in this society, dominance is regarded as a trait which taller people possess. Therefore, in heterosexual relationships, people choose mates who fit this societal mode of power structures: the woman is shorter and the man is taller. An alternative hypothesis was that men are taller than women in heterosexual relationships because men are generally taller due to the sexual dimorphism which exists in humans. Empirical research on this theory was performed in the form of a nine question survey which was distributed to twenty six college-age students. The data from the surveys was analyzed using the computer program Statview 4.5. The main hypothesis, that height is a factor when choosing a potential mate, was proven; but the reasoning behind it was not. The data does not show that power and height are correlated. The data could support the alternative hypothesis but more research and testing would need to be done to see whether or not sexual dimorphism is the reason affecting height differences in heterosexual relationships.

Title:	Stature and Status: Height, Ability, and Labor Market Outcomes
Authors:	Anne Case, Christina Paxon
Organization:	National Bureau of Economic Research
Pub. Date:	August 2006
Abstract:	It has long been recognized that taller adults hold jobs of higher status and, on average, earn more than other workers. A large number of hypotheses have been put forward to explain the association between height and earnings. In developed countries, researchers have emphasized factors such as self esteem, social dominance, and discrimination. In this paper, we offer a simpler explanation: On average, taller people earn more because they are smarter. As early as age 3 — before schooling has had a chance to play a role — and throughout childhood, taller children perform significantly better on cognitive tests. The correlation between height in childhood and adulthood is approximately 0.7 for both men and women, so that tall children are much more likely to become tall adults. As adults, taller individuals are more likely to select into higher paying occupations that require more advanced verbal and numerical skills and greater intelligence, for which they earn handsome returns. Using four data sets from the US and the UK, we find that the height premium in adult earnings can be explained by childhood scores on cognitive tests. Furthermore, we show that taller adults select into occupations that have higher cognitive skill requirements and lower physical skill demands.
Title:	Assessment Of Psychosocial Aspects Of Short Stature
Authors:	David E. Sandberg, PhD, Melissa Colsman, MA
Organization:	Departments of Psychiatry & Pediatrics, School of Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo
Pub. Date:	June 2005
Abstract:	This review summarizes what is known about the psychosocial aspects of Short Stature and the Quality of Life benefits of rhGH treatment. Stereotypes and assumptions about Short Stature are evaluated in light of empirical findings. As described elsewhere, 8 studies and reviews were identified on MEDLINE® and PsychINFO® and The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews® using the terms “short,” “stature,” “height,” or “growth hormone” combined with “psychological,” “psychosocial,” or “quality of life.”
Title:	Mean Body Weight, Height, and Body Mass Index, United States 1960-2002.
Authors:	Cynthia L. Ogden, et. al.
Organization:	National Center for Health Statistics
Pub. Date:	October 27, 2004
Abstract:	This report presents trends in national estimates of mean weight, height, and body mass index (BMI) from the National Examination and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys between 1960 and 2002. The tables included in this report present data for adults by sex, race/ethnicity, and age group and for children by sex and year of age. Mean weight and BMI have increased for both sexes, all races/ethnic groups, and all ages. Among adults, mean weight increased more than 24 pounds. Although not as dramatically, mean height has also increased for most ages and for both males and females.
Title:	Is short height really a risk factor for coronary heart disease and stroke mortality? A review
Authors:	Thomas T. Samaras, Harold Brick, Lowell H. Storms
Organization:	Reventropy Associates
Pub. Date:	April 2004
Abstract:	A number of studies have reported an inverse relationship between height and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Most of these studies have involved a relatively small number of deceased people and may have been confounded by socioeconomic and other factors. In contrast, many studies have found short populations in traditional and western societies have very low CVD compared to taller Western populations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of short height on coronary heart disease (CHD) and stroke incidence or mortality based on a variety of inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic groups involving much larger deceased populations compared to previous studies. The results of this study indicate that shorter people have substantially lower rates of CHD mortality and moderately lower levels of stroke mortality. For example, shorter southern Europeans had about half the CHD mortality rate of northern Europeans. In addition, shorter ethnic groups vs taller groups in California had substantially lower mortality rates. Native American, Japanese, Indian, and Pakistani studies also showed shorter people had lower CHD and stroke incidence or mortality compared to taller people within each group. The rate of increase in CHD mortality with increasing height was similar for shorter females vs taller males and for shorter males vs taller males.
Title:	Women's height, reproductive success and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in modern humans
Authors:	Daniel Nettle
Organization:	Open University of Britain
Pub. Date:	August 2002
Abstract:	Recent studies have shown that, in contemporary populations, tall men have greater reproductive success than shorter men. This appears to be due to their greater ability to attract mates. To our knowledge, no comparable results have yet been reported for women. This study used data from Britain's National Child Development Study to examine the life histories of a nationally representative group of women. Height was weakly but significantly related to reproductive success. The relationship was U-shaped, with deficits at the extremes of height. This pattern was largely due to poor health among extremely tall and extremely short women. However, the maximum reproductive success was found below the mean height for women. Thus, selection appears to be sexually disruptive in this population, favouring tall men and short women. Over evolutionary time, such a situation tends to maintain sexual dimorphism. Men do not use stature as a positive mate-choice criterion as women do. It is argued that there is good evolutionary reason for this, because men are orientated towards cues of fertility, and female height, being positively related to age of sexual maturity, is not such a cue.
Title:	Height and the High Life - What Future for a Tall Story
Authors:	Timothy Leunig & Hans-Joachim Voth
Organization:	Department of Economic History, London SChool of Economics & Universitat Pompeu Fabra
Pub. Date:	2004
Abstract:	Ever better information on health and living standards will remove height from history's centre stage. This will be compounded by declining variations in adult height both within countries and across nations, as populations approach their genetic potential. We suggest two cases where stature will retain its role because other data are poor or unavailable. Children's heights can capture the effects of changing public policy and social conditions on families even in western countries. As with many current historical studies, the absence of other data may also make adult heights a useful tool in understanding the transition from communism to capitalism.
Title:	The Effect of Adolescent Experience on Labor Market Outcomes: The Case of Height
Authors:	Nicola Persico, Andrew Postlewaite and Dan Silverman
Organization:	University of Pennsylvania
Pub. Date:	8 October 2001
Abstract:	Taller workers receive a wage premium, and the disparity in wages is similar in magnitude to the race and gender gaps. We exploit the variation in an individual's height over time to explore the way in which height affects wages. Specifically, we show that for white males, the effect of adult height is essentially eliminated when adolescent height is taken into account. We take this as evidence that adolescent height has important economic implications long after the time that it is observable to others, and we explore the channels through which the effects might be manifested.
Title:	Beauty, Stature And The Labour Market: A British Cohort Study
Authors:	Barry Harper
Organization:	London Guildhall University
Pub. Date:	8 June 1999
Abstract:	The influence of physical appearance in the labour market is examined using longitudinal cohort data covering 11,407 individuals born in Britain in 1958. Results show that physical appearance has a substantial effect on earnings and employment patterns for both men and women. Irrespective of gender, those who are assessed as unattractive or short, experience a significant earnings penalty. Tall men receive a pay premium while obese women experience a pay penalty. The bulk of the pay differential for appearance arises from employer discrimination, although we find evidence for productivity differences among occupations. The impact of physical appearance is also evident in the marriage market. Among women, those who are tall of obese are less likely to be married; while among men, lower marriage rates are found fore those who are short or unattractive.
Title:	Don't Want No Short, Short Man: The Study Of Height, Power, and Mate Selection
Authors:	Melanie Rubenstein, Maureen Wissman, Chris Meyers
Organization:	Miami University
Pub. Date:	4 May 1998
Abstract:	This study tested for a link between human height, power, and mate choice. The hypothesis was that in this society, dominance is regarded as a trait which taller people possess. Therefore, in heterosexual relationships, people choose mates who fit this societal mode of power structures: the woman is shorter and the man is taller. An alternative hypothesis was that men are taller than women in heterosexual relationships because men are generally taller due to the sexual dimorphism which exists in humans. Empirical research on this theory was performed in the form of a nine question survey which was distributed to twenty six college-age students. The data from the surveys was analyzed using the computer program Statview 4.5. The main hypothesis, that height is a factor when choosing a potential mate, was proven; but the reasoning behind it was not. The data does not show that power and height are correlated. The data could support the alternative hypothesis but more research and testing would need to be done to see whether or not sexual dimorphism is the reason affecting height differences in heterosexual relationships.